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Species of small, carnivorous mammal native to North America

Fisher
A fisher in New Hampshire
Conservation status
Least Concern (IUCN 3.ane)[ane]
Secure (NatureServe)[2]
Scientific nomenclature
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Mammalia
Order:	Carnivora
Family unit:	Mustelidae
Subfamily:	Guloninae
Genus:	Pekania
Species:	P. pennanti
Binomial proper noun
Pekania pennanti (Erxleben, 1777)
Fisher range
Synonyms
List Mustela pennantii Erxleben, 1777 Mustela canadensis Schreber, 1788 Mustela melanorhyncha Boddaert, 1784 Mustela zibellina nigra Kerr, 1792 Viverra piscator Shaw, 1800 Viverra canadensis Shaw, 1800 Mustela nigra Turton, 1802 Mustela piscatoria Lesson, 1827 Martes pennantii Smith, 1843 Martes pennanti Coues, 1877

The fisher (Pekania pennanti) is a small, carnivorous mammal native to Northward America, a forest-dwelling beast whose range covers much of the boreal wood in Canada to the northern United States. It is a member of the mustelid family (commonly referred to equally the weasel family unit), and is in the monospecific genus Pekania . It is sometimes misleadingly referred to as a fisher cat, although it is not a cat.^[three]

The fisher is closely related to, merely larger than, the American marten (Martes americana) and Pacific marten (Martes caurina). In some regions, the fisher is known every bit a pekan, derived from its proper noun in the Abenaki language, or wejack, an Algonquian word (cf. Cree wuchak, otchock, Ojibwa ojiig) borrowed by fur traders. Other Native American names for the fisher are Chipewyan thacho ^[iv] and Carrier chunihcho,^[5] both meaning "large marten", and Wabanaki uskool.^[vi]

Fishers have few predators besides humans. They have been trapped since the 18th century for their fur. Their pelts were in such demand that they were extirpated from several parts of the United States in the early on part of the 20th century. Conservation and protection measures accept allowed the species to rebound, merely their current range is notwithstanding reduced from its celebrated limits. In the 1920s, when pelt prices were high, some fur farmers attempted to raise fishers. Nevertheless, their unusual delayed reproduction made convenance hard. When pelt prices fell in the tardily 1940s, most fisher farming ended. While fishers usually avert human being contact, encroachments into forest habitats have resulted in some conflicts.

Male and female fishers look like, just can be differentiated by size; males beingness upward to twice every bit large every bit the females. The fur of the fisher varies seasonally, existence denser and glossier in the wintertime. During the summertime, the color becomes more than mottled, equally the fur goes through a moulting cycle. The fisher prefers to chase in total wood. Although an active climber, information technology spends well-nigh of its time on the forest floor, where it prefers to forage effectually fallen trees. An omnivore, the fisher feeds on a broad multifariousness of small animals and occasionally on fruits and mushrooms. It prefers the snowshoe hare and is 1 of the few animals able to prey successfully on porcupines. Despite its common name, it rarely eats fish. The reproductive cycle of the fisher lasts virtually a year. Female fishers give birth to a litter of three or four kits in the jump. They nurse and care for their kits until late summer, when they are onetime enough to set out on their ain. Females enter heat shortly after giving nativity and leave the den to discover a mate. Implantation of the blastocyst is delayed until the following spring, when they requite nativity and the cycle is renewed.

Etymology [edit]

Despite the name "fisher", the animal is non known to eat fish. The name is instead related to the word "fitch", meaning a European polecat (Mustela putorius) or pelt thereof, due to the resemblance to that animal. The name comes from colonial Dutch equivalent fisse or visse. In the French language, the pelt of a polecat is also called fiche or fichet.^[six] Alternatively, Dr. James DeKay, as reported by John James Audubon and John Bachman, claimed the name "fisher" may accept been attributed to the animal's "singular fondness for the fish used to allurement traps",^[7] although this may have been local lore.

Taxonomy [edit]

The Latin specific proper name pennanti honors Thomas Pennant, who described the fisher in 1771. Buffon had first described the creature in 1765, calling information technology a pekan. Pennant examined the same specimen, simply chosen it a fisher, unaware of Buffon'southward earlier description. Other 18th-century scientists gave it similar names, such as Schreber, who named it Mustela canadensis, and Boddaert, who named it Mustela melanorhyncha.^[viii] The fisher was eventually placed in the genus Martes past Smith in 1843.^[9] In 2008, advances in Deoxyribonucleic acid analysis immune a more detailed written report of the fisher's evolutionary history. The fisher and the genus Martes were determined to accept descended from a common ancestor, but the fisher was singled-out enough to put it in its own genus. It was decided to create the genus Pekania and reclassify the fisher as Pekania pennanti.^[10]

Members of the genus Pekania are distinguished past their four premolar teeth on the upper and lower jaws. Its shut relative Mustela has just three. The fisher has 38 teeth. The dentition formula is: three.ane.iv.ane 2.1.4.two ^[xi]

Evolution [edit]

Some show shows that ancestors of the fisher migrated to North America during the Pliocene era betwixt 2.5 and 5.0 1000000 years agone. 2 extinct mustelids, Pekania palaeosinensis and P. anderssoni, have been found in eastern Asia. The first true fisher, P. diluviana, has only been found in Heart Pleistocene Northward America. P. diluviana is strongly indicated to be related to the Asian finds, which suggests a migration. P. pennanti has been found as early as the Late Pleistocene era, well-nigh 125,000 years ago. No major differences are seen between the Pleistocene fisher and the modern fisher. Fossil prove indicates that the fisher's range extended farther south than information technology does today.^[half-dozen]

Three subspecies were identified by Goldman in 1935, Martes. pennanti. columbiana, K. p. pacifica, and K. p. pennanti. Afterward research has debated whether these subspecies could be positively identified. In 1959, E.M. Hagmeier concluded that the subspecies are non separable based on either fur or skull characteristics. Although some debate nevertheless exists, in full general, the fisher is recognized to be a monotypic species with no extant subspecies.^[12]

Biology and beliefs [edit]

Concrete characteristics [edit]

Fishers are a medium-sized mammal, comparable in size to the domestic cat. Their bodies are long, thin, and low to the ground. The sexes have similar concrete features, only they are sexually dimorphic in size, with the male being much larger than the female. Males are 90–120 cm (35–47 in) in total length and weigh three.five–6.0 kg (8–thirteen lb). Females measure 75–95 cm (30–37 in) and weigh 2.0–ii.5 kg (4–six lb). Head and body lengths for both sexes range from 47–75 cm (xix–thirty in); the tail adding a further 30–42 cm (12–17 in).^{[13] [14] [15]} The largest male fisher e'er recorded weighed nine kg (20 lb).^[sixteen]

The fisher's fur changes with the flavour and differs slightly between sexes. Males have coarser coats than females. In the early wintertime, the coats are dense and glossy, ranging from 30 mm (1 in) on the chest to seventy mm (3 in) on the back. The colour ranges from deep brown to black, although it appears to be much blacker in the wintertime when contrasted with white snow. From the face to the shoulders, fur can be hoary-gold or silver due to tricolored baby-sit hairs. The underside of a fisher is almost completely brown except for randomly placed patches of white or cream-colored fur. In the summer, the fur color is more variable and may lighten considerably. Fishers undergo moulting starting in late summertime and finishing past Nov or December.^[17]

Fishers take five toes on each foot, with unsheathed, retractable claws.^[vi] Their feet are big, making it easier for them to move on meridian of snow packs. In addition to the toes, four central pads are on each foot. On the hind paws are coarse hairs that grow betwixt the pads and the toes, giving them added traction when walking on slippery surfaces.^[18] Fishers have highly mobile talocrural joint joints that can rotate their hind paws virtually 180°, allowing them to maneuver well in copse and climb down head-first.^{[19] [20]} The fisher is one of relatively few mammalian species with the ability to descend trees caput-first.^[21]

A circular patch of hair on the central pad of their hind paws marks plantar glands that requite off a distinctive odor. Since these patches become enlarged during breeding flavour, they are likely used to brand a aroma trail to allow fishers to find each other so they can mate.^[18]

Hunting and diet [edit]

Fishers are generalist predators. Although their principal prey is snowshoe hares and porcupines, they are also known to supplement their nutrition with insects, nuts, berries, and mushrooms. Since they are solitary hunters, their choice of prey is express by their size. Analyses of stomach contents and scat have found testify of birds, modest mammals, and even deer—the latter indicating that they are not balky to eating feces.^[22] While the behavior is not common, fishers accept been known to kill larger animals, such as wild turkey, bobcat (although, in most cases, confrontations tend to be dominated by the true cat, that frequently prey on them and in fact is one of their main predators) and Canada lynx.^{[23] [24] [25]} Researchers in Maine have institute "well-nigh a dozen" cases of confirmed fisher predation on Canada lynx, and several more suspected cases, in a 4 township area of Maine.^[26] According to Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and Wild animals wildlife biologist Scott McClellan, the fishers involved in these kills attacked lynx bedded down in snowstorms with a quick "powerful grip" bite to the lynx's neck.^[26] Signs of struggle indicated that some lynx attempted to defend themselves but McClellan states that "the fishers would finish the cats off pretty quickly. 'There was some struggle certainly, just it didn't appear to last very long. There were some broken branches, tufts of fur, and claw marks where the lynx was trying to get away.'^[26] The McClellan written report in The Periodical of Wild animals Management documents 14 fisher-caused mortalities of Canada lynx from 1999 to 2011 in northern Maine, and found that predation was the leading source of mortality of lynx in the study area (xviii deaths, xiv by fisher).^[27]

Fishers are i of the few predators that seek out and kill porcupines. Stories in pop literature point that fishers tin can flip a porcupine onto its back and "scoop out its belly like a ripe melon".^[28] This was identified as an exaggerated misconception as early as 1966.^[29] Observational studies testify that fishers brand repeated biting attacks on the face of a porcupine and kill it later about 25–30 minutes.^[30]

Reproduction [edit]

The female person fisher begins to breed at about 1 year of historic period and her reproductive cycle is an virtually twelvemonth-long event. Mating takes place in tardily March to early on Apr. Blastocyst implantation is then delayed for 10 months until mid-February of the following year when agile pregnancy begins. After gestating for about 50 days, the female person gives birth to one to four kits.^[31] The female person then enters estrus seven–ten days later and the breeding cycle begins again.^[32]

Females den in hollow trees. Kits are built-in bullheaded, helpless, and are partially covered with fine hair. Kits begin to crawl after well-nigh three weeks. After about vii weeks, they open their optics.^[33] They showtime to climb after eight weeks. Kits are completely dependent on their mother's milk for the first eight to ten weeks, later on which they begin to switch to a solid nutrition. Later on four months, kits become intolerant of their litter mates, and at v months, the female parent pushes them out on their own. After one yr, juveniles will take established their own range.^[32]

Social structure and dwelling range [edit]

Fishers are generally crepuscular, being most active at dawn and dark. They are active yr-round, and are solitary, associating with other fishers only for mating. Males become more than active during mating flavor. Females are least active during pregnancy and gradually increase action after nascency of their kits.^[32]

A fisher'south hunting range varies from half-dozen.6 km² (3 sq mi) in the summer to 14.1 km² (5 sq mi) in the winter. Ranges upwards to 20.0 km² (8 sq mi) in the winter are possible depending on the quality of the habitat. Male person and female fishers accept overlapping territories. This behavior is imposed on females by males due to dominance in size and a male'southward desire to increase mating success.^[34]

Predators and Parasites [edit]

As far every bit is known, adult fishers are non regularly subject to predation. The occasional fishers reported as killed by other predators were probably ill, sometime, otherwise in poor health, or lacking in appropriate behavior, making them easy and not dangerous to kill. Predators of the fisher included bears (Ursus spp), coyotes (Canis latrans), gold eagles (Aquila chrysaetos), lynx (Lynx sp.) , mount lions (Puma concolor), wolverines (Gulo gulo), and possibly great horned owls (Bubo virginianus).^{[35] [36]}

Parasites of fishers include nematode Baylisascaris devosi, tapeworm Taenia sibirica, nematode Physaloptera sp., trematodes Alaria mustelae and Metorchis conjunctus, nematode Trichinella spiralis, and Molineus sp.^[37]

Habitat [edit]

Although fishers are competent tree climbers, they spend most of their time on the wood floor and prefer continuous forest to other habitats. They have been establish in extensive conifer forests typical of the boreal forest, merely are also common in mixed-hardwood and conifer forests. Fishers adopt areas with continuous overhead comprehend with greater than 80% coverage and avoid areas with less than 50% coverage.^[38] Fishers are more than probable to be plant in old-growth forests. Since female fishers require moderately large trees for denning, forests that have been heavily logged and accept extensive second growth announced to be unsuitable for their needs.^[39]

Fishers likewise select for forest floors with large amounts of fibroid woody debris. In western forests, where burn regularly removes understory debris, fishers bear witness a preference for riparian woodland habitat.^{[34] [xl] [41]} Fishers tend to avert areas with deep snow. Habitat is also afflicted by snow compaction and moisture content.^[42]

Distribution [edit]

A fisher climbing a tree at night

Fishers are widespread throughout the northern forests of North America. They are found in the boreal and mixed deciduous-coniferous forest belt that runs beyond Canada from Nova Scotia in the east to the Pacific shore of British Columbia and n to Alaska. They can be institute as far north as Neat Slave Lake in the Northwest Territories and as far southward as the mountains of Oregon. Isolated populations occur in the Sierra Nevada of California, throughout New England, in the Catskill mountains of New York and the Appalachian Mountains of Pennsylvania, Maryland, West Virginia,^[43] and Virginia.^[44]

In the tardily 19th and early 20th centuries, fishers were virtually eliminated from the southern and eastern parts of their range, including most American states and eastern Canada including Nova Scotia. Overtrapping and loss of forest habitat were the reasons for the refuse.^{[45] [46]}

About states had placed restrictions on fisher trapping by the 1930s, coincidental with the terminate of the logging boom. A combination of forest regrowth in abandoned farmlands and improved wood direction practices increased available habitat and allowed remnant populations to recover. Populations have since recovered sufficiently that the species is no longer endangered. Increasing woods cover in eastern Due north America means that fisher populations volition remain sufficiently robust for the most future. Betwixt 1955 and 1985, some states had immune limited trapping to resume. In areas where fishers were eliminated, porcupine populations subsequently increased. Areas with a high density of porcupines were found to have extensive damage to timber crops. In these cases, fishers were reintroduced by releasing adults relocated from other places into the forest. Once the fisher populations became re-established, porcupine numbers returned to natural levels.^[47] In Washington, fisher sightings were reported into the 1980s, but an all-encompassing survey in the 1990s did not locate whatever.^[48]

Scattered fisher populations at present exist in the Pacific Northwest. In 1961, fishers from British Columbia and Minnesota were reintroduced in Oregon to the southern Cascades near Klamath Falls and to the Wallowa Mountains near La Grande. From 1977–1980, fishers were introduced to the region around Crater Lake.^[49] Starting in January 2008, fishers were reintroduced into Washington State.^[50] The initial reintroduction was on the Olympic peninsula (90 animals), with subsequent reintroductions into the due south Cascade Mountains. The reintroduced animals are monitored past radio collars and remote cameras, and have been shown to be reproducing.^[51] From 2008 to 2011, about 40 fishers were reintroduced in the northern Sierra Nevada near Stirling City, complementing fisher populations in Yosemite National Park and forth California's northern boundary betwixt the Pacific Coast Ranges and the Klamath Mountains.^[52] Fishers are a protected species in Oregon, Washington, and Wyoming. In Idaho and California, fishers are protected through a airtight trapping season, but they are non afforded any specific protection;^[53] however, in California the fisher has been granted threatened status under the Endangered Species Human action.^[54] In June 2011, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service recommended that fishers be removed from the endangered list in Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming.^[14]

Contempo studies, likewise as anecdotal evidence, prove that fishers have begun making inroads into suburban backyards, farmland, and periurban areas in several US states and eastern Canada, equally far south as most of northern Massachusetts, New York,^{[55] [56]} Connecticut,^[57] Minnesota and Iowa,^[58] and even northwestern New Jersey.^[59] Having most disappeared after the construction of the Cape Cod Canal in the early 1900s, some reports have shown that populations have go re-established on Cape Cod,^{[60] [61] [62] [63]} although the populations are likely smaller than the populations in the western office of New England.^[61]

Human relationship with humans [edit]

Fishers have had a long history of contact with humans, just most of it has been to the detriment of fisher populations. Unprovoked attacks on humans are extremely rare, simply fishers will assault if they experience threatened or cornered. One time, a fisher was blamed for an attack on a 6-year-old boy.^{[64] [65]} In another case, a fisher is believed to exist responsible for an attack on a 12-year-former male child.^[66]

Fur merchandise and conservation [edit]

Fisher pelts sold: 1920–1984^{[67] [68]}

Fishers have been trapped since the 18th century. They have been pop with trappers due to the value of their fur, which has been used for scarves and cervix pieces. It is reported that fisher tails were used in the making of spodiks, a form of ceremonial lid worn by Jews of certain Hasidic sects.^{[ citation needed ]}

The best pelts are from winter trapping, with secondary-quality pelts from spring trapping. The lowest-quality furs come up from out-of-flavour trapping when fishers are moulting. They are hands trapped, and the value of their fur was a item incentive for communicable this species.^[69]

Prices for pelts take varied considerably over the past 100 years. They were highest in the 1920s and 1930s, when average prices were about U.s.$100.^[6] In 1936, pelts were being offered for auction in New York City for $450–750 per pelt.^[lxx] Prices declined through the 1960s, but picked upwardly again in the late 1970s. In 1979, the Hudson's Bay Visitor paid $410 for one female person pelt.^[70] In 1999, sixteen,638 pelts were sold in Canada for C$449,307 at an average toll of $27.^[71]

Between 1900 and 1940, fishers were threatened with most extinction in the southern part of their range due to overtrapping and alterations to their habitat. In New England, fishers, along with most other furbearers, were most exterminated due to unregulated trapping. Fishers became extirpated in many northern U.S. states afterward 1930, but were still abundant enough in Canada to maintain a harvest over iii,000 fishers per twelvemonth. Express protection was afforded in the early 20th century, but total protection was not given to the few remaining fishers until 1934. Airtight seasons, habitat recovery, and reintroductions have restored fishers to much of their original range.^[six]

Trapping resumed in the U.Due south. after 1962, once numbers had recovered sufficiently. During the early 1970s, the value of fisher pelts soared, leading to another population crash in 1976. After a few years of closed seasons, fisher trapping reopened in 1979 with a shortened flavor and restricted bag limits. The population has steadily increased since then, with steadily increasing numbers of trapped animals, despite a much lower pelt value.^[67]

Captivity [edit]

Fishers have been captured live for fur farming, zoo specimens, and scientific research. From 1920–1946, pelt prices averaged about C$137. Since pelts were relatively valuable, attempts were fabricated to raise fishers on farms. Fur farming was popular with other species such as mink and ermine, and then the same techniques were idea to be applicable to fishers. However, farmers found it difficult to raise fishers due to their unusual reproductive bicycle. In general, knowledge of delayed implantation in fishers was unknown at the fourth dimension. Farmers noted that females mated in the spring merely did not give birth. Due to declining pelt prices, most fisher farms closed operations by the late 1940s.^[72]

Fishers accept also been captured and bred past zoos, but they are non a mutual zoo species. Fishers are poor animals to exhibit because, in general, they hide from visitors all solar day. Some zoos have had difficulty keeping fishers alive since they are susceptible to many diseases in captivity.^[73] Yet at least one example shows a fisher kept in captivity that lived to be 10 years former, and another living to exist about xiv years old,^[74] well across its natural lifespan of vii years.^{[75] [76]}

In 1974, R.A. Powell raised two fisher kits for the purpose of performing scientific research. His primary interest was an attempt to measure out the activity of fishers to decide how much food the animals required to function. He did this past running them through treadmill exercises that simulated activeness in the wild. He compared this to their food intake and used the data to gauge daily food requirements. The research lasted for two years. Later on one year, one of the fishers died due to unknown causes. The second was released back into the wilderness of Michigan's Upper Peninsula.^[77]

Interactions with domestic animals [edit]

Fisher raiding a farmer's duck coop

In some areas, fishers can become pests to farmers when they raid chicken coops, and instances of fishers preying on cats and pocket-sized dogs have been reported.^{[78] [79] [80] [81] [82] [83]} Still, a 1979 study examined the breadbasket contents of all fishers trapped in the state of New Hampshire; cat hairs were institute in merely one of over one,000 stomachs.^[84] An informal unfinished 2011 study in suburban upstate New York constitute no true cat remains in 24 scat or stomach samples, and an earlier published report found no true cat in 226 Massachusetts samples.^[85]

Poisoning [edit]

Male fisher killed by anticoagulant rodenticide on a marijuana grow site on US Wood Service lands, southern Sierra Nevada mountains

In 2012, a study conducted by the Integral Environmental Research Center,^[86] UC Davis, U.S. Forest Service, and the Hoopa tribe showed that fishers in California were exposed to and killed by anticoagulant rodenticides associated with marijuana cultivation.^[87] In this study, 79% of fishers that were tested in California were exposed to an average of 1.61 different anticoagulant rodenticides and 4 fishers died directly attributed to these toxicants. A 2015 follow-upwardly study building on these data determined that the trend of exposure and mortality from these toxicants increased to 85%, that California fishers were now exposed to an average of i.73 different anticoagulant rodenticides, and that 9 more fishers died, bringing the total to xiii.^[88] The extent of marijuana cultivation within fishers' home ranges was highlighted in a 2013 study focusing on fisher survival and impacts from marijuana cultivation within the Sierra National Forest.^[89] Fishers had an average of 5.three individual grow sites within their dwelling house range.^[89] Ane fisher had 16 individual grow sites within its territory.

Literature [edit]

One of the start mentions of fishers in literature occurred in The Audubon Book of True Nature Stories. Robert Snyder relates a tale of his come across with fishers in the woods of the Adirondack Mountains of New York. He recounts three sightings, including ane where he witnessed a fisher attacking a porcupine.^[xc]

In Winter of the Fisher, Cameron Langford relates a fictional run into between a fisher and an aging recluse living in the forest. The recluse frees the fisher from a trap and nurses information technology back to wellness. The fisher tolerates the attention, but beingness a wild animal, returns to the forest when well plenty. Langford uses the ecology and known habits of the fisher to weave a tale of survival and tolerance in the northern forest of Canada.^[91]

Fishers are mentioned in several other books, including The Blood Jaguar (an animal shaman), Ereth's Birthday (a porcupine hunter) and in The Sign of the Beaver, where a fisher is thought to have been caught in a trap.^{[92] [93] [94]}

Pop civilization [edit]

The animal's common name is used for a small league baseball squad, the New Hampshire Fisher Cats.

References [edit]

1. ^ Helgen, Chiliad.; Reid, F. (2018) [amended version of 2016 assessment]. "Pekania pennanti". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2018: e.T41651A125236220. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-2.RLTS.T41651A125236220.en . Retrieved March 8, 2020.
2. ^ "NatureServe Explorer 2.0". explorer.natureserve.org . Retrieved March 30, 2022.
3. ^ "Near Fishers". Mass Audubon . Retrieved September 2, 2018.
4. ^ "Fort Resolution Chipewyan Dictionary" (PDF). January 22, 2011. p. twoscore. Retrieved Dec 21, 2012.
5. ^ Poser, William J. (1998). Nak'albun/Dzinghubun Whut'enne Bughuni (Stuart/Trembleur Lake Carrier Lexicon), 2nd edition. Vanderhoof, BC: Yinka Dene Language Found.
6. ^ ^{a b c d eastward f} Powell, R.A. (May 8, 1981). "Martes pennanti" (PDF). Mammalian Species. The American Society of Mammalogists (156): 1–6. doi:10.2307/3504050. JSTOR 3504050. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 30, 2005. Retrieved Oct 21, 2011.
7. ^ Audubon, John; Bachman, John (1846). The Viviparous Quadrupeds of North America. Vol. one. p. 313.
8. ^ Coues, p. 66.
9. ^ Powell, pp. xi–12.
10. ^ Koepfli, Klaus-Peter; Deere, Kerry A; Slater, Graham J; Begg, Colleen; Begg, Keith; Grassman, Lon; Lucherini, Mauro; Veron, Geraldine; Wayne, Robert 1000 (February 14, 2008). "Multigene phylogeny of the Mustelidae: Resolving relationships, tempo and biogeographic history of a mammalian adaptive radiation". BMC Biology. half dozen (x): 10. doi:x.1186/1741-7007-6-x. PMC2276185. PMID 18275614.
11. ^ Powell, p. 12.
12. ^ Powell, p. fourteen.
13. ^ "Martes pennanti: Fisher". Animal Diverseness Web. University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. Retrieved April 28, 2010.
14. ^ ^{a b} "Fisher". 2011.
15. ^ "Fisher (Head and body length)". 2021.
16. ^ Powell, p. 3.
17. ^ Powell, pp. 4–6.
18. ^ ^{a b} Powell, p. 9.
19. ^ Fergus, p. 101.
20. ^ Nations, Johnathan A.; Link, Olson. "Scansoriality in Mammals". Brute Diversity Web.
21. ^ Alexander, R. McNeill (2003). Principles of fauna locomotion. Princeton University Press. p. 162. ISBN978-0-691-08678-1.
22. ^ Fergus, p. 102.
23. ^ "Ecological Characteristics of Fishers in the Southern Oregon Cascade Range" (PDF). USDA Wood Service – Pacific Northwest Research Station 2006.
24. ^ Vashon, Jennifer; Vashon, Adam; Crowley, Shannon. "Partnership for Lynx Conservation in Chief December 2001 – December 2002 Field Report" (PDF). Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife. p. 9.
25. ^ Richardson, John (March 17, 2010). "Researchers collect information to track wellness of, threats to Canada lynx". The Portland Press Herald. Pressherald.com. Archived from the original on November 14, 2012. Retrieved December 20, 2012.
26. ^ ^{a b c} Joshua Rapp Learn (September 28, 2018). "Small Weasel-Like Animals Are Taking Down Big Cats". National Geographic . Retrieved Dec 25, 2019.
27. ^ McLellan, Scott R.; Vashon, Jennifer H.; Johnson, Erica 50.; Crowley, Shannon Chiliad.; Vashon, Adam D. (2018). "Fisher predation on Canada lynx in the Northeastern United States". Journal of Wild animals Management. 82 (8): 1775–8. doi:10.1002/jwmg.21538. S2CID 92083192.
28. ^ Doyle, Brian (March 6, 2006). "Fishering". High State News. Retrieved April 28, 2010.
29. ^ Coulter, One thousand.Westward. (1966). Environmental and management of fishers in Maine. (Ph.D. thesis). Syracuse, N.Y.: St. Univ. Coll. Forest. Syracuse University.
30. ^ Powell, pp. 134–half dozen.
31. ^ Burt, Henry W. (1976) A Field Guide to the Mammals. Boston, p. 55. ISBN 0-395-24084-0.
32. ^ ^{a b c} Feldhamer, pp. 638–9.
33. ^ Pattie, Donald L.; Fisher, Chris C. (1999). Mammals of Alberta. Edmonton: Lone Pine Pub. p. 82. ISBN1551052091.
34. ^ ^{a b} Feldhamer, p. 641.
35. ^ Powell, Roger A., and William J. Zielinski. "Fisher." In: Ruggiero, Leonard F.; Aubry, Keith B.; Buskirk, Steven W.; Lyon, 50. Jack; Zielinski, William J., tech. eds. The scientific basis for conserving forest carnivores: American marten, fisher, lynx, and wolverine in the western United States. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-254. Fort Collins, CO: United states of america Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Woods and Range Experiment Station. p. 38-73 254 (1994).
36. ^ Powell, Roger A., Steven W. Buskirk, and William J. Zielinski. "Fisher and marten." Wild Mammals of North America: Biology, Direction, and Conservation, p. 635-649 (2003).
37. ^ Dick, T. A; Leonard, R. D. (1979). "Helminth parasites of fisher Martes pennanti (Erxleben) from Manitoba, Canada". Periodical of Wildlife Diseases. 15 (three): 409–412. doi:x.7589/0090-3558-15.3.409. PMID 574167.
38. ^ Powell, p. 88.
39. ^ Powell, p. 92.
40. ^ "Fisher Martes pennanti". Defenders of Wildlife. Retrieved Apr 28, 2010.
41. ^ "Martes pennanti: North American range map". Discover Life. Retrieved April 28, 2010.
42. ^ Powell, p. 93.
43. ^ Feldhamer, p. 636.
44. ^ "fisher (Martes pennanti pennanti)". Virginia DGIF. Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries. Retrieved December 25, 2019.
45. ^ Powell, p. 77.
46. ^ Hardisky, Thomas, ed. (July 2001). "Pennsylvania Fisher Reintroduction Project". Pennsylvania Game Committee, Agency of Wild animals Management. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 25, 2012. Retrieved December xx, 2012.
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Further reading [edit]

• Coues, Elliott (1877). Fur Bearing Animals: a Monograph of North American Mustelidae. Section of the Interior (Usa). pp. 62–74. Retrieved October 21, 2011.
• Feldhamer, George A.; Thompson, Bruce C.; Chapman, Joseph A. (2003). Wild mammals of North America: biology, management, and conservation. pp. 635–649. ISBN978-0-8018-7416-1 . Retrieved October 21, 2011.
• Fergus, Charles (2006). Wildlife of Virginia and Maryland and Washington. Stackpole Books. pp. 101–103. ISBN978-0-8117-2821-8 . Retrieved October 21, 2011.
• Hodgson, Robert G. (1937). Fisher Farming. Fur Trade Periodical of Canada.
• Powell, Roger A. (November 1993). The Fisher: Life History, Environmental, and Behavior. University of Minnesota Press. ISBN978-0-8166-2266-5.
• Buskirk, Steven W.; Harestad, Alton S.; Raphael, Martin K.; Powell, Roger A. (1994). Martens, sables, and fishers: biology and conservation. Comstock Publishing Associates. ISBN978-0-8014-2894-iv.

External links [edit]

• Fisher videos, photos and facts Arkive.org.
• Fisher Screech Online community of fisher sightings, sounds, and videos.
• Texts on Wikisource:
  • "Fisher". Encyclopedia Americana. 1920.
  • "Fisher". New International Encyclopedia. 1905.
  • "Fisher". The American Cyclopædia. 1879.

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisher_(animal)

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